BY DR.ABDUL AHAD
Besides textiles, the Mughal rulers undertook various measures to ensure the development ot the metal works which too met their requirements and the demands of urbanization. Empress Nurjahan is said to have displayed enthusiasm in patronising and popularising the art of Kashmiri Jewellery.
Thus, after its annexation, Kashmir subordinated its entire industrial system to the satisfaction of the Mughal nobility that indulged in enormous consumption of luxurious goods mostly produced in the Karkhanas which were run on the same pattern as that of the Central Asia.
In these Karkhanas the workmen were busily employed on whole-time basis strictly in accordance with a complex system of social division of labour and under such rules and regulations which resulted in the development of the simple capitalistic mode of production. This mode of production manifested itself in:
>the intensification of the social division of labour;
>the development of the productive forces;
>the improvement of techniques and designs;
>the transformation of small-scale into large-scale production; and
>the formation of merchants capital.
As regards the social division of labour, it was thoroughly deepened not only to improve the quality of products but also to run the internal administration of the Karkahnas most effectively. In the textile Karkhanas alone there were more than 12 separate groups of the workmen working under ustads on fulltime basis. From amongst these workmen mention may be made of the following :
Spinner
Dyer
Warp-maker
Designer
Reckoner
Script writer
Darners
Twister
Reeler
Burlers
Weaver
Shawl-weaver
Carpet-weaver
Likewise,following workmen were employed in the metal workshops :
Smith
Copper-smith
Gold-smith
Engraver
Gilder
Polisher
Cleaner
In other Karkhanas also work was done on the basis of division of labour.
There was, as a matter of fact, a sort of caste-system prevailing in the Karkahnas and, consequently, no person outside the class of artisans was admitted to the profession. Each craft was hereditary and the production know-how passed from father to son.
Karkhanas comprised several branches; each being under an ustad or vosta (head craftsman) who supervised the work of the tsats (workers) and shagirds (apprentices) working under him”. The vosta had complete control over his workers. He exercised all pervasive influence on their work and formed the main link between the artisans and the entrepreneurs.
That a considerable improvement took place in the manufacturing process as a result of the intensification of the social division of labour is testified by the contemporary sources, notably Tuzk-i-jahangiri and Shah Jahan Namah. Abul Fazl too speaks eloquently about the perfection and excellence of procedures of manufacturing.
Improvements in the tools and implements, particularly in the loom”, revolutionised not only the shawl but also the silk and the carpet industries enabling them to produce soft fabrics and fascinatingly designed carpets depicting hunting scenes and floral designs.
Similarly, it became possible for Kashmiri smiths to fashion in gold and silver the most delicate ornaments such as opals, blood stones, agatas, turquoises, bracelets and rings.
Besides these improvements, the Kashmiri Karkhanas expanded considerably. The number of textile Karkahanas alone rose to 40,000 giving employment to about 120000 workmen and to the entire female population of the towns and cities. Even small children and girls got employment in the Karkhanas.
A definite system of wages too developed in this period; enabling workmen to receive suitable remuneration in cash than in kind as was the case in the time of the Sultans.
The idea that Kashmir’s annexation to the Mughal India created objective basis for its Karkhanas to develop simple capitalistic mode of production is further substantiated by the following provisions of the Treaty, concluded between Ladakh and Kashmir in 1682-83 to regulate the supply of pashm (wool) to shawl industry”,
Dr. Abdul Ahad is a well-known historian of Kashmir. He presents a perspective on the Kashmir issue and talks about Kashmir’s history and individuality and personality.
