The political parallelism is a situation in which more than one political ideologies are found in a country or a province which run parallel to each other but have no meeting grounds to offer the chances of convergence. Secularism and theocracy, capitalism and communism, democracy and authoritarianism erc. are the examples of political parallelism based on ideological differences. Political parallelism is also based on mutually exclusive sources of power like axis powers versus allied powers in the World War Ist and IInd or Soviet Union versus United States during the Cold War period, or United States versus China in the New Cold War era.The partition of British India on the basis of two-nation theory in the immediate neighborhood of former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir created the political circumstances under which ideological and political parallelism gained its ground in the former Dogra Kingdom.The present article is an endeavour to study the phenomenon of political parallelism in Jammu and Kashmir State.
GENESIS OF POLITICAL PARALLELISM IN JAMMU KASHMIR:-
The Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference established in 1932 is the first formal political party of Muslims of Jammu and Kashmir State.The main objective of Muslim Conference was to realize socio-economic and political empowerment of Muslims of the state. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, the President of Muslim Conference changed the name of his political party to Jammu and Kashmir National Conference on 11th June 1939 to pursue an inclusive and secular political agenda to represent people of all the shades within Jammu and Kashmir State.The inclusive and secular political ideology of National Conference brought it closer to Indian National Congress led by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. Choudhry Ghulam Abbass defected from National Conference to revive the Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference along with Mirwaiz Mohammad Yusuf Shah in 1944.The exclusive Muslim nationalist agenda of Muslim Conference brought it closer to Indian Muslim League led by Mohammad Ali Jinnah.Thus the stage was set for the ideological and political parallelism in Jammu and Kashmir State.
The announcement of partition plan of the British India on the basis of two-nation theory on 3rd June 1947 intensified the ideological and political competition between National Conference and Muslim Conference in the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.The Indian Independence Act passed by the British Parliament on 18th July 1947, recommended that the rulers of 565 princely states shall accede to India or Pakistan on the basis of the principles of geographical contiguity and demographic composition of their respective Kingdoms. In order to uphold the spirit of 1858 Treaty between the British Crown and the princes under which the rulers of the princely states were recognized as the sovereign allies of the British Crown, the option of staying away from the dominions of India and Pakistan as the rulers of independent kingdoms was also included in the Indian Independence Act of July 1947. Muslim Conference passed a resolution at Srinagar on 19th July1947 supporting the accession of Muslim dominated princely state of Jammu and Kashmir to Pakistan with respect to defense, foreign affairs and communication. The automatic ruler of Dogra princely state of Jammu and Kashmir preferred to stay away from both India and Pakistan to continue his autocratic rule in his kingdom.In this regard Maharaja Hari Singh submitted his Standstill Agreement offer to both India and Pakistan through an identical telegram on 12th August 1947.
The Government of Pakistan accepted the Standstill Agreement in principle, pending details, on16th August 1947.The Government of India suggested the Maharaja to send some of his cabinet minister to New Delhi to discuss the details of the Standstill Agreement and insisted on the establishment of popular government prior to the agreement. The Working Body of National Conference met under the chairmanship of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah on 3rd October1947 and passed the resolution supporting the accession of Jammu and Kashmir with the Indian Union.The decision was however, kept confidential to avoid Pakistan’s and Muslim Conference’s resentment. Thus the two political parties of Jammu and Kashmir articulated their parallel ideologies and political stands with respect to the future of the Dogra princely state.
POST-PARTITION POLITICS IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR-
The rumours of Pakistani invasion in Kashmir prior to the onset of winter in 1947 were making the rounds. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, who was in prison, wrote a letter of apology to Maharaja Hari Singh, offered to extend his support to the autocratic ruler against the enemies of Jammu and Kashmir. Mirwaiz Mohammad Yusuf, the main Kashmiri speaking leader of Muslim Conference left for Pakistan at midnight, following the release of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah from the prison by Maharaja Hari Singh on 29th September1947. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah had mobilized his 10,000 National Conference volunteers to guard the capital city of Srinagar.On 22nd October1947 around 5,000 tribal raiders from Northwestern Frontier Province of Pakistan raided Kashmir. Two days later the Poonch-Mirpur warriors who had started armed revolt against the Dogra ruler in spring, declared on 24th October 1947, the establishment of Azad Government of Jammu and Kashmir led by Sardar Mohammad Ibrahim Khan.
The tribal warriors resorted to ruthless killings of the non-Muslims enroute from Muzzaffarabad to Srinagar.The emergency situation in his kingdom forced Maharaja Hari Singh to send his Prime Minister, Meharchand Mahajan to New Delhi on 24th October1947 to seek military assistance from the Government of India.The Government of India led by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru made the preconditions of accession of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir with Indian Union and induction of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, the most popular political leader in the state administration. Sheikh Mohamed Abdullah, who was staying at Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s residence on 24th October1947, supported the accession of Jammu and Kashmir State with Indian Union. Maharaja Hari Singh was obliged to accede to India with respect to defence, foreign affairs and communication on 26th October 1947 and agreed to induct Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah in the state administration.On 27th October 1947, the Indian troops landed at Srinagar Airport and on 29th October 1947.
Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah was appointed as the Emergency Administrator of Kashmir by Maharaja Hari Singh. In order to represent Kashmir on behalf of India at the UN with more authority, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah was appointed as the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir on 5th March 1947, whereas Sardar Mohammad Ibrahim Khan, leader of Muslim Conference and President of Azad Kashmir pleaded for Pakistan at the UN in March 1947. The UN Security Council Resolution on the Dogra princely of Jammu and Kashmir on 21st April 1947 called for two-option plebiscite to determine whether the people of the state want to stay with India or join Pakistan. The Muslim Conference welcomed the decision but the National Conference protested against the UN resolution because it feared the Muslim majority state may opt for Pakistan in the absence of an option of people’s right to establish an independent country. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah who had publicly supported the accession of Jammu and Kashmir with Indian Union at UN, met privately Warren Austin, Permanent Representative of United States at UN to point out that the best option for the disputed territory is to become an independent country.
National Conference sent its four representatives from Jammu and Kashmir State including Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, Mirza Mohammad Àfzal Beigh, Maulana Mohamad Syed Masoodi and Moti Ram Baigra to the Constituent Assembly of India in 1949 to convert the legal relationship of Jammu and Kashmir State with Indian Union into a constitutional one by incorporating Article 370 in the Constitution of India enforced on 26th January1950. The National Conference in early 1951 passed a resolution demanding the framing of a Constituent Assembly for Jammu and Kashmir State.As a follow-up action Karan Singh, Sadr-e-Riyasat, passed an order in May 1951 to hold elections for establishing a 75 member Constituent Assembly in the Indian Administered Jammu and Kashmir State. In September and October 1951 the elections were held in the state in which most of the National Conference candidates were elected unopposed. While addressing the first session of Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly on 5th November,1951, Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah had all praises for India as a modern secular democracy and labelled Pakistan as a feudal state. However, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah had not dropped the idea of an independent country from his mind. While addressing a public gathering at R.S.Pura in Jammu in 1952 he threatened New Delhi to secede from India following which he was invited to have Nehru-Abdullah Accord also known as Delhi Agreement on 24th July 1952 defining the centre-state relationship.
DEFECTIONS WITHIN NATIONAL CONFERENCE-
The Hindu nationalists of India protested against the Delhi Agreement, under the banner of Jansang led by Dr Shama Prasad Mukherjee. In early 1953 the Jansang volunteers led by Dr Shama Prasad Mukherjee marched to Lakhinpur to cross the Jammu and Kashmir State border without any permit.The Abdullah Government arrested him but after some time his death occurred while in prison at a Jammu jail.The death of Dr Shama Prasad Mukherjee was politicised by Hindu nationalists as a custodial killing by Abdullah administration.
The communal tension in Jammu and elsewhere in the country furiated Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah to such an extent that while addressing a public gathering at Mujahid Manzil Srinagar on 13th July 1953 he said,” I objected the accession of Jammu and Kashmir with Pakistan, because I thought they won’t treat me well, but the rulers of India have back stabbed me, I part my ways with New Delhi”.He further said, “A day would come when like the Algerian people the youth of Kashmir would take arms in their hands against India”. On 8th August 1953 Abdullah was dismissed from Prime Ministership and arrested at Gulmarg rest house on 9th August. Except for Mirza Mohammad Àfzal Beigh and a few other Abdullah loyalists, the huge majority of National Conference members of the Constituent Assembly supported the leadership of Bakhshi Ghulam Mohammad as the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir State. Bakhshi Ghulam Mohamad in his address charged Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah of working against the sovereignty and territorial integrity of India at the behest of external power, an indirect reference to the United States.
The Bakhshi Government tried to end the political uncertainty in Jammu and Kashmir State and took special interest in socio-economic and infrastructural development of the state.The ratification of the Instrument of Accession by Jammu and Kashmir State Constituent Assembly, removal of permit system for entry into Jammu and Kashmir State by Indian citizens, incorporation of Article 35-A in the Constitution of India to safeguard preexisting State Subject laws, introduction of Indian currency in Jammu and Kashmir State and the adoption and implementation of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir State were some of the landmark decisions of the National Conference Government led by Bakhshi Ghulam Mohammad.
The National Conference led by Bakhshi Ghulam Mohammad had a defection in the form of Democratic National Conference led by Ghulam Mohammad Sadiq, the last Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir State.Ghulam Mohammad Sadiq an honest leftist leader abolished the nomenclatures of Wazir-e-Azam and Sardar-e-Riyasat and took an oath as the first Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir State.The Democratic National Conference was finally converted into Pradesh Congress Committee led by Syed Mir Qasim the first Congress Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir State.
REVIVAL OF NATIONAL CONFERENCE:-
Two years after the dismissal of Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah, Mirza Mohammad Àfzal Beigh launched the Jammu and Kashmir Plebiscite Front on 9th August 1955, sponsored by Pakistan to demand right of self-determination for the people of Jammu and Kashmir State.Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah who was neither a member nor an office bearer of Plebiscite Front used the platform for his anti-India and anti-Bakhshi propaganda. The Plebiscite Front was joined by Abdullah loyalists, pro-independence and pro-Pakistan Kashmiries but the defeat of Pakistan by India in 1965 War in Kashmir and 1971War in East Pakistan demoralised both Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah as well as Mirza Mohammad Àfzal Beigh. Ultimately Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah prevailed upon Mirza Mohammad Àfzal Beigh to dissolve his Plebiscite Front to re-enter the Indian political mainstream,which the later did after the signing of Beigh-Parthasarthy Accord in 1974.The decision of joining the Congress supported government by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah Mohammad and Àfzal Beigh in1975 was welcomed by the general public but termed as sell out by Pakistan and pro-Pakistan Kashmiri leaders like Sofi Akbar and others. Congress leadership at New Delhi wanted Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah to join the Congress but he preferred to revive his National Conference, which distasted the Pradesh Congress Committee so it withdrew support to Abdullah Government.The dissolution of Jammu and Kashmir State Legislative Assembly by Governor B.K. Nehru paved the way for fresh elections in the state in 1977, in which Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah’s National Conference was voted to power with huge majority. After the death of Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah on 8th September1982, the Pakistani agencies became pro-active in Kashmir. The rigging of elections by National Conference-Congress alliance against 15 Muslim United Front candidates in Kashmir on 23rd March 1987 created the favourable circumstances for Pakistan to fish in the troubled waters in the state.
RISE OF GUERRILLA WARFARE IN KASHMIR:-
The frustration of defeated candidates of Muslim United Front and their political workers was channelized by the Pakistani agencies to start guerrilla warfare in Kashmir.Four JKLF youth code named as HAJY Group including Hamid Sheikh, Ashfaq Majeed, Javed Mir and Yasin Malik crossed the Line of Control to seek arms training and arms and ammunition to start guerrilla warfare in Kashmir from 31st July onwards. Since the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front led by late Amanullah Khan stood for Independent Jammu and Kashmir, so thousands of Kashmiri youth crossed the Line of Control to seek arms training and arms and ammunition from across the border.
The popularity of pro-independence and secular Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front was perceived as a long-term threat to Pakistani geopolitical interests in Kashmir, so pro-Pakistan militant organizations having Islamic orientation were patronized to take control of armed struggle in Kashmir.The pro-Pakistan militant organizations like Hizbul Mujahideen, Harkatul Ansar, Lashkare Toiba, Jaishe Muhammad and Al Umer Mujahideen etc. we’re imparted arms training and supplied with arms and ammunition to maintain the upper hand of the pro-Pakistan militant organizations in the guerrilla warfare in Kashmir. Mohammad Yasin Malik,JKLF chairman finally announced the cease fire in May 1994 to launch a peaceful political struggle.Contrary to it Mohammad Yusuf Shah alias Syed Salahuddin, chief commander of Hizbul Mujahideen was made the Supreme Commander of Pakistan based United Jehad Council to lead the armed struggle in Kashmir.
The overground pro-liberation groups which include both pro-Pakistan Huriyat Conference of Syed Ali Shah Geelani, pro-independence JKLF of Mohammad Yasin Malik, and Huriyat Conference of Mirwaiz Umer Farooq have sided with Pakistan to seek liberation of Kashmir from India through her logistical and moral support. The three groups have launched the Joint Resistance Leadership in 2016 to lead the separatist movement in Kashmir.The Indian mainstream political parties like National Conference, People’s Democratic Party and People’s Conference have transformed their political discourse to Greater Autonomy, Self-Rule and Achievable Nationhood respectively.The rise of BJP-led Hindu nationalism in India has brought the Congress, National Conference and People’s Democratic Party closer to each other to protect the special status of Jammu and Kashmir State within the Indian Union.The killing of 50 CRPF personnel in the Pulwama suicide attack by Jaishe Muhammad on 14th February 2019 escalated to air strikes by India in Balakote and the retaliation by Pakistan against Indian air force. Under international pressure Pakistan has sealed the offices of many militant organizations and has started sharing intelligence information with India to avoid any future militant provocation in the Indian Administered Jammu and Kashmir State.If Pakistan is determined to abandon the policy of guerilla warfare in Kashmir, only then there are chances of peace and stability in Jammu and Kashmir State in near future.
CONCLUSION:-
The dominant political ideologies in Jammu and Kashmir State are secularism and Muslim nationalism patronised by India and Pakistan respectively.The two-option UNSC resolutions at the international level, Pakistani patronage at the subcontinent level and the clash of interests between the ruling party and the political opposition at the state level have created ideal conditions for flourishing ideological and political parallelism in Kashmir. Given the fact that both India and Pakistan have the nuclear deterrent, so the two countries will neither change their traditional Kashmir policies nor will go for any large scale war between themselves. The Kargil War in 1999 and Balakote Airstrikes in February 2019 are the clear examples of sustained but controlled hostility between India and Pakistan.Since the seven decades old Indo-Pak dispute over Kashmir is territorial in nature, so it will be unrealistic to expect any solution of the problem in the immediate future.
Prof.G.M.Athar can be reached at ghathar@yahoo.co.in
