Prof. G M.Athar
INTRODUCTION:-The Muslim dominated Kashmir in its strict sense has no indigenous political history. It has been ruled by three categories of rulers over the past eight centuries in terms of their ethnicity, religious identity and sovereignty. Rinchan Shah the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir Sultanate was from Ladakh region and the same was true about the Shah Mir dynasty, originally from the Swat Valley in the present day Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa Province of Pakistan and the Chak dynasty from the Guris Valley in former Dardistan.The second category of rulers of Kashmir include the Mughal and Afghan rulers of Kashmir who ruled from Delhi and Kabul respectively.The third category of rulers of Kashmir included the non-Muslims such as the Sikhs, Dogras and Indians who ruled over Kashmir from Lahore, Jammu and New Delhi respectively. In order to fully understand the political history of mediaeval and modern Kashmir, it is very important to elaborate the nature of ruling dynasties of Kashmir since it was converted to Islam from the fourteenth century onwards. A brief account of the three distinct phases of the political history of Kashmir is given as under:
THE SRINAGAR BASED NON-INDIGENOUS RULERS OF THE KASHMIR SULTANATE:- In 1313 A.D.during the reign of Hindu ruler of Kashmir, namely Suhadeva, “Dul-Qadr” a military commander from Kandhar in present day Afghanistan invaded Kashmir with heavy cavalry. Baharistan-i- Shahi notes him to be a Turko-Mongol raider, named as “Zulchu”. By the time “Dul-Qadr” decided to return, Kashmir was in a state of total ruin. Suhadeva lacked popular legitimacy and Rinchan had his eyes set on the throne.The people were allowed to form armed groups to ward off robers etc.
Rinchan had settled in Gagangir, in Lahar and long before had gained tremendous wealth by selling off Kashmiries as slaves to Ladakh.In order to fulfill his political aspirations, Rinchan raised a group of faithful soldiers in Lahar and succeeded in ascending the throne on 6th October1320 A.D. Rinchan Shah was the first Sultan of Kashmir. Originally from a royal dynasty of Ladakh was a Buddhist, who was converted to Islam by Syed Shraffuddin Abdul Rahman Turkestani, popularly known in Kashmir as Bulbul Shah, who named him as Sultan Sadruddin.Therefore, Rinchan Shah was the first Muslim ruler of the Kashmir Sultanate who ruled for three years from 1320 to 1323.
Both Jonaraja and Baharistan-i-Shahi commend Rinchan to be a kind king and just ruler. The rule of law was sacrosanct for everybody irrespective of closeness to king and his sagacious ways led his subjects to believe that Golden Age of Kashmir had been restored. Shah Mir was appointed as the Prime Minister. Rinchan was attacked by the forces of Suhadeva and died because of his wounds on 25th November 1353 A.D.
Shah Mir originally from the Swat Valley played an important role in defending Kashmir along with Rinchan Shah when “Dul-Qadr” invaded the territory in 1313 A.D. After a long rivalry with the other claimants to the throne, Shah Mir became the ruler of Kashmir Sultanate in 1939 and his reign continued till 1342. He established the Shah Mir dynasty which ruled the Kashmir Sultanate for more than two countries till Habib Shah the last ruler of the Shah Mir dynasty was dethroned Ghazi Shah Chak in 1561 A.D.
Ghazi Shah Chak became the first Shia Muslim ruler of the Kashmir Sultanate.The Chak dynasty was originally from the Guris in Dardistan who during the reign of Suhadeva had settled in Lolab Valley, when Lanker Chak migrated with his family to live in Kashmir. Lankar Chak was appointed as Mir Bakhsh (Commander in Chief) by Shah Mir. Yusuf Shah Chak ruled Kashmir from 1579 to 1586 A.D. after he succeeded his father Ali Shah Chak as the ruler of Kashmir. Yusuf Shah Chak was brought to Akbar for talks on Kashmir but was imprisoned in Bihar where he died. His son Yakub Shah Chak succeeded him as the ruler of Kashmir but ultimately surrendered before the Emperor Akbar, when the later visited Kashmir in 1589 A.D.
THE EXTERNAL MUSLIM RULE IN KASHMIR PROVINCE:- Kashmir Sultanate has been a Sunni Muslim dominated territory from the 14th century onwards. Mir Shams-ud-Din Muhammad Arāqi an Iranian Sufi Muslim saint who lived between 1440 to 1515 A.D. visited Kashmir in 1483 A.D. and is buried at Chadura in Budgam District of Kashmir. Araqi was part of the order of Twelver Shia Sufis in Kashmir who greatly influenced the social fabric of the Kashmir Valley and its surrounding regions. He is considered by some to be the effective founder of Shia Islam in Gilgit, Baltistan, Ladakh, Kashmir, Jammu and adjoining areas. After arriving in Srinagar, he established his Khanqah in the Zaddibal, which would later go on to produce many of Kashmir’s future military leaders. He was the best known for influencing the nobles of the Chak clan to embrace the Noorbakshia Sufi Islamic faith as well as Shia Islam as a whole.
During the reign of the Chak dynasty in Kashmir, the sectarian differences between the Shia Muslims and Sunni Muslims became the cause of conflict between the two communities. However, the Kashmiri soldiers from both the communities unitedly fought against the Mughal army in1528, 1533, 1540 1551 and 1560 to make its repeated attempts to capture Kashmir unsuccessful.In the meanwhile, the ruler of Kashmir, Yusuf Shah Chak, faced revolt and had to abdicate the throne within two months of his coronation. In 1580, he went to Agra and sought Akbar’s aid to regain his crown. Akbar dispatched his troops with Yusuf Shah Chak under Raja Man Singh’s command. When Yusuf reached Lahore, his former minister, Muhammad Bhat, advised him against bringing the Mughal army to Kashmir. Yusuf managed troops on his own and was able to regain his throne. Meanwhile, Akbar asked Yusuf thrice to make personal appearance at his court which he avoided on the advice of his counsellors. He sent his son to Akbar with gifts. An infuriated Akbar sent 5,000 troops to invade Kashmir. Overawed by Akbar, Yusuf fought back the Mughal army. The retreating Mughal commander, Bhagwan Dass, sent a word to Yusuf that they would return with a stronger army and make Kashmiri resistance impossible.
He suggested that Yusuf should make a personal appearance before Akbar. The nobility again advised Yusuf against taking such a step, but he escaped to the Mughal camp in February 1586.Yusuf’s betrayal did not stop Kashmiris from putting up resistance against the Mughals and they placed his son, Yaqoob, on the throne. A treaty of peace was reached between the two sides under which Yusuf’s throne was restored to him. However, when Yusuf was presented before Akbar at Attock on 28 March 1586, he was imprisoned in a clear breach of the treaty which led a dejected Bhagwan Dass to attempt suicide. Later, Yusuf was released but not allowed to return to Kashmir. Instead, he was dispatched to Biswak in Bihar where he died yearning to go back to his country.
Akbar’s army launched a fresh attack on Kashmir, faced stiff resistance and suffered severe beating at various places. The commander of the Mughal army, Qasim Khan, was so disheartened that he requested Akbar to call him back, but the latter sent him reinforcement instead. The Mughal army was ultimately successful in annexing Kashmir on 6 October 1586.For a long time, the Mughals encountered resistance and for two months their soldiers did not dare to come out of the city. Eventually, they were able to douse the flames of resistance. In 1589, Akbar found the situation conducive to undertaking his first visit to Kashmir. In the words of Forster, “Akbar subdued it [Kashmir]; aided more, it is said, by intrigue, than the force of his arms.”
Akbar built the outer wall of the fort in 1590 at a cost of one crore and ten lakh of rupees.The loss of freedom was a great shock and setback to the Kashmiris. The Mughal soldiers were hated by Kashmiris as an army of occupation and there happened many ugly incidents involving the Mughal soldiers and the Kashmiris. Akbar used all his tactics to subdue Kashmiris but could not earn their love and goodwill, except for enlisting the support of its small minority. The Kashmiri Muslims were ousted from the channels of administration. No place of administrative trust was reserved for them, and for utilizing the local talent, the Brahmans were picked up even as the senior administrative functionaries like subedars were deputed from Agra and Delhi. Seeking to crush the martial spirit of Kashmiri Muslims, their entry into the army was closed. The powerful Muslim families such as the Shah Mirs, Chaks, Magres, Rainas, Maliks and Bhats were pulled down from high pedestals, and within a short span of time, they were forgotten.
The people of Kashmir could no longer tolerate the misrule of Mughal satraps, and accordingly when Ahmad Shah Abdali of Kabul was at Lahore in1752.A.D, two Kashmiri noblemen Mir Muquim Kant and Khawja Zahir Didmari, waited upon him at Lahore, and disgracefully requested him to bring Kashmir under his control. Ahmad Shah, gladly accepted this offer and immediately dispatched a powerful Afghan army under the command of Abdullah Khan Ashak Aqasi, to occupy the Kashmir Valley. The Mughal satrap offered a strong resistance, but were defeated and the Afghan Governor planted the Afghan flag on the ramparts of Akbar’s town at Nagar in Srinagar . The rule of Mughals in Kashmir came to an end .Kashmir remained a dependency of Kabul rulers roughly for a period of 67 years. In 1753, A. D, Kashmir was conquered by Ahmad Shah Abdali, whose descendents ruled over Kashmir till its occupation by Sikhs in 1819, A. D. Like Mughals the Afghans also sent their governors and deputy governors to rule over Kashmir. During the period Kashmir was ruled by twenty-eight governors and deputy governors. The Afghans ruled over Kashmir for a very short period of time. The Afghans were invited by the Kashmiris to take over the administration of Kashmir. They hoped that after the fall of central Mughal power, the Afghans would provide them suitable and better administration, but it proved to be a distant dream. Instead of getting relief the Kashmiris were ruthlessly plundered by Afghans. The period is marked by rack renting, drain of wealth, and oppressive taxation on trade, craft and withdrawal of patronage to the local arts. These arts and crafts were introduced among the people of valley long before especially after the establishment of Muslim rule in, 1339.A.D. by Sultan Shamsu’d-dinShah Mir.The people of Kashmir were known for their art skills from times immemorial. The centre of skills was the city of Srinagar. But other areas such as Anantnag, Sopore, Bandipur and Pulwama also did not remain behind. During the winters people besides other engagements were forced to engage themselves in some
Afghans were invited by the people of the valley to relieve themselves from the screws of oppression which they faced during the early period. Instead of getting remedy to their problems the invitation increased their miseries. Each and every sect got affected with their arrival. They Increased the burden in the economy of Kashmir valley and were in a constant tril to drain the resources of the valley towards their own country. To fulfill their illegal desires a number of newer taxes were introduced. The non Muslim population of the valley remained the worst hit of problems.Even numbers of them migrated to other parts to save their life without caring for property.Some areas remained without the inhabitants and looked like a desert .Arts and crafts for Which Kashmir valley has been famous throughout the world were destroyed by them. A number of artisans changed their profession in order to save their lives.
When Pandit Birbal Dar was dismissed for financial irregularities, by the Afghan Government, he along with his son approached Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1846 to capture Kashmir. Maharaja Ranjit Singh sent the Sikh Army to defeat the Afghans to make Kashmir a province of Sikh Empire in 1819 A.D. Since 1819 Kashmir Province remained under the control of non-Muslim rulers who ruled it from Lahore, Jammu and New Delhi.The Kashmiri Muslims continued to have a second class status even in the democratic phase of world history. The Sikhs from 1819 to 1846; the Dogras from 1846 to 1947 and the Indian rulers from 1947 onwards kept the Muslim dominated Kashmir Province forcibly under their control against the wishes of the dominant majority of the population inhabiting the conflict-ridden territory.
The author can be reached at ghathar@yahoo.co.in
